Program Design

Feminist Pedagogy Literature Review

Table 1. Student name and comments

Your name	Commented On
Gabriel Shetterley	Mat Murphy - Transformative Learning Literature Review

Introduction

In our modern condition, the long-held beliefs of a single coherent grand narrative and perspective of history have been disillusioned. There is not just one single interpretation, but many. From this new perspective, there has been a slew of new and exciting fields of study, with the most notable ideals being post-modernism and the post-truth movement, just to name a few. While the aforementioned ideals are hot topics in some academic debates fields, there is one ideal that is have become more perversive in our modern context, feminism.

While many of us may have a negative approach to feminism, some of you may even be thinking of the “unarticulated thought/screaming feminist” meme. This stereotype is far from the core ideological beliefs, structures, and operations of feminism. This stereotype is not the feminism I will be speaking about. The type of feminism presented and discussed in this paper is feminist pedagogy. By this point, you may be asking yourself, “what is feminist pedagogy?” In what follows, we will look at what feminism and pedagogy are, then we will take a look at the themes of feminist pedagogy, then implications of these themes, from there we will then at my reflection on this topic, implications, and themes, and then lastly we will conclude.

Before we begin looking at the general themes of feminist pedagogy, it may be helpful for some to further define what feminism and pedagogy are. First, feminism is a reaction to the phallogocentric, or men centered knowledge, world view (Offen, 1988). While to some, this may still be rather ambiguous as to what this means, but it would be a straw-man, or straw-person, to simply say that feminism is just woman rights. Feminism is about reclaiming the knowledge that has been subjugated, lost, or prevented from being further explored. Second, pedagogy, it is most easily defined, stems from the greek work paidagogia, meaning, education, attendance on boys (etymology online dictionary, "pedagogy (n.)"). While initially, from the greek, it is already focused on the masculine, however, over the years it has developed to mean and has been characterized as “child learning” or the “teaching of children” Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, 87). Thus, together feminist pedagogy is a method for teaching and learning that employs political frameworks that involve consciousness-raising activists, activism, and a caring and safe environment, with a goal of promoting personal emancipation and political actions (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).

To further explore feminism pedagogy, I believe it is important too, at least, discuss the multiple different types of feminism. Rather than discussing and using culturally relevant discursive terms, such a First wave, Second Wave, and Third Wave (sometimes called Tumblr feminism), I will only be discussing two different fields; liberatory and gendered feminist pedagogy. Liberatory feminist pedagogy derives their philosophical and metaphysical roots from Marxism and Post-Modernism (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). In this approach, the goal is to reclaim the standpoint (also called viewpoint/perspective), experience, and recover the voices of women. The goal of reclaiming standpoint(s), experiences, and recovering voices, is to make systems of power, privilege, and oppression visible. Emphasizing that the structures of society, including all the systems that interpolate on or to our standpoint/worldview, are the systems that oppress and establish control and notions of power. 

While on the other hand, the gendered approach is derived not from philosophy, but rather, from psychoanalytic and humanistic psychology (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). In this approach, women, rather than just being simply empty vessels waiting to receive knowledge, become active knowers and constructors of knowledge, essentially becoming psychologically emancipated. This approach also focuses on the female identity, how it has been socially constructed, that of the role of a nurturer, and how and how the individual woman can find her voice. 

Critics, of these two views, have stated that that the approaches do have some benefits but some concerns may outweigh the benefits. The liberatory approach may be good at identifying the differences of positionally based off race, class, and gender, however, it seems to have emphasized the importance of power structures to the determent of considering and account of the individual’s capacity for agency and control outside of social structures (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). The gendered approach emphasizes similarities between women, however, it does not account for differences between women, such as differences between race, class, sexual orientation, and so on.

General Themes 

There are many themes within feminist pedagogy, however, we will be looking at the following themes; 1.) how knowledge is constructed 2.) the development of voice, 3.) the authority of the teacher and students, and lastly, 4.) dealing with differences. These themes have been further elaborated by E. J. Tisdell (Tisdale 1995, 1996,1998, 2000). Rather than just reiterating what Tisdell has already said, we will use other sources to further enrich Tisdell’s four articulated themes. 

How Knowledge is Constructed

Let us begin with how knowledge is constructed. Traditional, and as you may recall from our etymological definition of pedagogy, knowledge is associated with men, boys, and males. However, feminist pedagogy actively works to circumvent this convention. Knowledge, under feminist pedagogy, is directed by the experience of womanhood/positionally. The primary focus, or concern, is that women are, essentially, raised and exposed to the patriarchal norms of society, this has already predefined what woman is, without the real concern of actual women. Knowledge is constructed by the experience of women, mainly relying on their own standpoint, in the absence of men and their  phallogocentric knowledge (Changfoot, 2004).

Development of Voice

With the previously discussed man-centered, phallogocentric, contraction of knowledge, this has limited the accessibility to the standpoint, positionally, and experience of women, and this limited their own voice. We can further explore this example by looking at religion, Ephesians 5:22-24, “Wives, submit yourselves unto your own husbands, as unto the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife, even as Christ is the head of the church: and he is the saviour of the body. Therefore as the church is subject unto Christ, so let the wives be to their own husbands in every thing” (“BibleGateway”). Due to this subservience to men, the voice of the women was an extension of their husband. Feminist pedagogy rejects these “societal norms,” encourages and promoting women to defy these conventions in order to find their own voice. How can one have their own voice if they are in the shadow of their oppressor?

Authority of the Teacher and Students

The traditional authoritarian role of the teacher is no longer the dominant mode of teaching. Rather than being empty vessel awaiting knowledge to be deposited, this approach relies on active meaning-making via personal position and standpoint. In this theme, teaching and learning employ political frameworks that involve consciousness-raising activists, activism, and a caring and safe environment. Teachers are there to assist and help learners understand their own situatedness and show that others have the same struggles, ideas, and so on. It is focused on the teaching-learning transaction of women so that a furthermore robust understanding the perspective  of women to be actively discussed, rather than prohibited.

Dealing with Differences

Lastly, dealing with differences. As stated earlier, traditional knowledge was associated with phallogocentrism, however, this definition has been contrasted to mean only certain types of men. With the Eurocentric view, it was the information of white men that formally become knowledge (Frye, 1983). Thus, other groups, such as indigenous people, people of color, different presentations of masculinity, became subjugated. There was intolerance and prodigious towards different types of knowledge. Feminist pedagogy has managed to tackle this problem of subjugation. From the idea there are many different perspectives, feminist pedagogy has managed to show the importance that gender, race, class, and so on can affect knowledge, what is know, and how something can be known. 

 Implications

With these four themes discussed in further detail, it is now time to identify as to why these are important to the pedagogical approach. These themes are useless unless they are put into practice, however, it may be difficult, prima facie, to think of how to apply these themes. In what follows are some possible considerations as to how to apply these themes in order to better connect and relating with the learner. We will first begin with how one can apply the feminist pedagogical theme of dealing with differences. 

Differences have a great and powerful ability that is very underutilized. The best way to demonstrate this is by example. Please, consider the following. Everyone experiences customer service differently. May have positive experiences and some negative, however, it would be sanguine to believe that there isn’t a difference between the experience of a male in customer service as compared to how females experience customer service, the same can be said of individuals of different races. As opposed to men, women may feel that they get more aggressive sales pitches, given that in society, there is a stereotype that women are more submissive. However, the example I just gave may be more applicable to white individuals. A woman of color may not experience the same aggressive sales pitch. There is a culturally constructed stereotype that female women of color are more aggressive and less submissive than their white counterparts. Thus their interactions with customer service are fundamentally different, they may not be approached with tases sales tactics or not even approached at all. It is by comparing differences of experience in everyday tasks, one can begin to then fully understand the similarity, solidarity, and the importance of their differences that women can then come together and further grow and learn. Pointing out positions of privilege is a great way to begin to understand the advantages and disadvantages individual has based off their class, race, gender, and so on. There is knowledge that is only accessible to people of certain classes, races, and so on. By sharing these differences, others can begin to understand their own position better.

The theme of how knowledge is constructed can be employed in a multitude of ways. I think one useful way is to show that there are multiple interpretations. Marilyn Frye has a classical thought experiment that identifies how knowledge is constructed. In their 1983 book, there is an allegory of the card cage (Frye, 1983). Say there is a bird in a cage, and their master loves to hear it’s songs. The master is phallogocentrism, while the bird is the female subject. If one is viewing from outside of the case, it becomes intelligible as to why the bird would want to be out of the cage, since it has everything done for it. From the perspective of the bird, each bar of the case represents a different type of oppression. There is a bar for gender, race, sexuality, and so on. Depending on one’s perspective, that is what will determine their “knowledge.” A simple thought experiment could easily demonstrate how knowledge is constructed. Say you have a group that is dominantly Christian, as Christians don’t usually get to experience, tell them they are wrong, but the other religions’ backgrounds of the course are correct. All of their experience are not worthy of consideration and their knowledge isn’t useful. By showing how it feels to have your knowledge discount and subjugated, is useful in showing the damage that comes with oppressive systems of knowledge. Hopefully encouraging individuals to be “put in someone else’s shoes,” in order to see the damage that subjugated knowledge and oppression has.

When it comes to the development of voice, there are many different ways to implement this, however, this theme has a very diverse way in which it can arise. I think the best way to implement this theme is to understand that this development is to allow the individuals to participate in consciousness-raising activities with a political framework, in a  safe environment, with a goal of promoting personal emancipation and personal political actions. An example of implementing this would be simply talking to the group. As any instructor knows, at first it can be very hard for students to begin talking openly. However, some may be  better than others, while some, may not be s talkative. For those who aren’t very talkative, they are the prime subject for voice development. Engaging with them in personal discourse is one way to begin developing voice. Ask them about what they like, and make sure it is what they like, and not the likes of someone who has power over them. It can be as simple as asking what hobbies do they have, what do they like to eat, what do they like to do for fun, and on on. With each personal answer, the subject is developing tier own voice, strong and willing to speak their on subjectivity and political beliefs that are serrated from the power structure that oppresses them. 

Lastly, implementing the theme of power relation in regards to the authority of the teacher and student. As stated earlier, this is removed from the traditional authoritarian power structure. Rather, the power structure between the student and the teacher needs to be reduced to a level where the teachers are seen as a responsible and lawful good character, while the student is elevated to the level as a knower, or someone who knows something, rather than being a recipient of knowledge. The environment for this reduction in power structures has to be safe. The goal of the theme when enacted is to create trust and collaborated effort in the meaning-making process. For example, problematize power, point out that the author of the teacher is problematic. Next, redistribute this former power to the students in the form of being knowers. Rather than asking the students for the answer to the experiential questions, expecting a specific answer, frame it as an open discussion, where rather than the answer being so important, it is the knowledge gained from their experience or standpoint that is the important part. 

Reflection

In the modern-day world it can be hard to discuss feminism within the current hegemonic culture, and even harder to discuss it within the context of learning. Yet, here we are, with clearly identified themes and implications of the themes. Feminism, as a tool, is a very powerful and liberating ideology. I believe that with the use of non-pedagogical work, such as feminist epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics, as a way to supplement the missing theory can have a better impact on reaching eager learners, help seeking individuals, and disenfranchised individuals. This is also something that isn’t just for women, even though some of the practices do benefit women more than it would men, however, I believe that the same themes and implications can also benefit some men and also correct, mitigate, and further analyze some of the ideological pitfalls of masculinity.

Table 2. Summary of the literature review

	The main themes (The ideas summarized from the literature)	Implications (How to apply the main ideas in practice)
Theme 1:	How Knowledge is Constructed	Demonstrating how oppression forms what knowledge is
Theme 2:	Development of Voice	Personal Emancipation
Theme 3:	Authority of the Teacher and Student(s)	Creates trust and collaborated effort in the meaning making process
Theme 4:	Dealing with Differences.	The way in which we differ can point out societal constructed ideals that frames us.

Reference

BibleGateway. (n.d.). Retrieved February 13, 2020, from https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ephesians+5:22-24&version=KJV

Changfoot, N. (2004). Feminist Standpoint Theory, Hegel and the Dialectical Self. Philosophy and Social Criticism, 30(4). 

etymology online dictionary. (n.d.). pedagogy (n.). Retrieved February 13, 2020, from https://www.etymonline.com/word/pedagogy

Frye, M. (1983). The Politics of Reality: essays in feminist theory: Crossing Point.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: Jossey-Bass.

Offen, K. (1988). Defining Feminism: A Comparative Historical Approach. Signs, 14(1), 119-157. Retrieved February 13, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/3174664

Tisdell, E.J. (1995). Creating inclusive learning environments for adults: Insights from Multicultural Education and Feminist Pedagogy, Information Series No. 361. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education Selected Journal Articles and book chapter

Tisdell, E.J. (1996). Feminist pedagogy and adult learning: Underlying Theory and emancuoatirt practice, Proceedings of the 37th annual Adult Education Research Conference (pp 307 - 312). Tampa: University of South Florida

Tisdell, E. J. (1998). Poststructural Feminist Pedagogies: The Possibilities and Limitations of Feminist Emancipatory Adult Learning Theory and Practice. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(3), 139–156. doi: 10.1177/074171369804800302

Tisdell, E. J. (2000). Feminist Pedagogies. In E, R, Hayse & D. D. Flannery with A. K. Brooks, E. J. Tisdell, & J. M. Hugo (Eds), Women as learners: The significance of gender in adult learning (pp. 155-183). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

he Possibilities and Limitations of Feminist Emancipatory Adult Learning Theory and Practice. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(3), 139–156. doi: 10.1177/074171369804800302